virtual memory

http://duartes.org/gustavo/blog/post/anatomy-of-a-program-in-memory

Work harder today!

I will work harder today and take a rest tomorrow. That will be a very good
deal to me.

assign output to variable

a=$(echo $(wc -l ))

sed editor

1. sed 's/[a-zA-Z]* //3' new
Here /2 means we change the second word to empty
for the sentence: will this black car work?
echo "will this black car work?" |sed 's/[a-zA-Z0-9][a-zA-Z0-9]*\s//3' will output
> will this car work?
\s matches the space and tab

去掉所有的空白行:“:%s/\(\s*\n\)\+/\r/”。这回多了“\(”、 \)”、 \n”、 \r”和
“ “ “
“*”。“*”代表对前面的字符(此处为“ \s”)匹配零次或多次(越多越好;使用“ \*”表
示单纯的“*”字符),“\n”代表换行符,“ \r”代表回车符,“\(”和“\)”对表达式进
行分组,使其被视作一个不可分割的整体。因此,这个表达式的完整意义是,把连续的换行符
(包含换行符前面可能有的连续空白字符)替换成为一个单个的换行符。唯一很特殊的地方是,
在模式中使用的是“ \n”,而被替换的内容中却不能使用“ \n”,而只能使用“\r”。原因是
历史造成的,详情如果有兴趣的话可以查看“:help NL-used-for-Nul”。

Flag -n

The "-n" option will not print anything unless an explicit request to print is found. I mentioned the "/p" flag to the substitute command as one way to turn printing back on. Let me clarify this. The command

sed 's/PATTERN/&/p' file

acts like the cat program if PATTERN is not in the file: e.g. nothing is changed. If PATTERN is in the file, then each line that has this is printed twice. Add the "-n" option and the example acts like grep:

sed -n 's/PATTERN/&/p' file

Nothing is printed, except those lines with PATTERN included.

sed -f scriptname

If you have a large number of sed commands, you can put them into a file and use

sed -f sedscript new

where sedscript could look like this:

# sed comment - This script changes lower case vowels to upper case
s/a/A/g
s/e/E/g
s/i/I/g
s/o/O/g
s/u/U/g

When there are several commands in one file, each command must be on a separate line.

Also see here

Quoting multiple sed lines in the Bourne shell

The Bourne shell makes this easier as a quote can cover several lines:

#!/bin/sh
sed '
s/a/A/g
s/e/E/g
s/i/I/g
s/o/O/g
s/u/U/g' new

the debugging of makefile from Dr. Dobb's

This
http://www.ddj.com/development-tools/197003338?pgno=2

installation

Install a package
rpm –ivh packagename
upgrade a package
rpm –Uvh packagename

create a tar file
tar –cvf myfiles.tar mydir/
(add z if you are dealing with or creating .tgz (.tar.gz) files)

standard install from source
tar –xvzf Apackage.tar.gz
cd Apackage
./configure
make
make install

Makefile note-findstring

$(findstring find,in)

Searches in for an occurrence of find. If it occurs, the value is find; otherwise, the value is empty. You can use this function in a conditional to test for the presence of a specific substring in a given string. Thus, the two examples,

$(findstring a,a b c)
$(findstring a,b c)

produce the values `a' and `' (the empty string), respectively.

You can write a conditional that tests make command flags such as `-t' by using the variable MAKEFLAGS together with the findstring function (see section Functions for String Substitution and Analysis). This is useful when touch is not enough to make a file appear up to date.

The findstring function determines whether one string appears as a substring of another. If you want to test for the `-t' flag, use `t' as the first string and the value of MAKEFLAGS as the other.

For example, here is how to arrange to use `ranlib -t' to finish marking an archive file up to date:

archive.a: ...
ifneq (,$(findstring t,$(MAKEFLAGS)))
       +touch archive.a
       +ranlib -t archive.a
else
       ranlib archive.a
endif

The `+' prefix marks those command lines as "recursive" so that they will be executed despite use of the `-t' flag. See section Recursive Use of make.

Makefile Notes

Assignment in Makefile:

The different assignment operators have somewhat different meanings.

=

    VARIABLE = text string

This is the usual assignment statement that all implementations of make support. The expression on the right hand side is not evaluated until the value of $(VARIABLE) is actually used somewhere. Thus, if you do the following:

    X = 1
   Y = $(X)
   X = 2

Then $(Y) later in the makefile will evaluate to “2”.

:= (THIS ONE IS PREFERED!!)

    VARIABLE := expr

This is the same as “VARIABLE = expr” except that the right hand side is evaluated at the time of the assignment. Thus if

    X := 1
   Y := $(X)
   X := 2

then $(Y) later in the makefile will evaluate to “1” since that's what $(X) was when $(Y) was defined.

+=

    VARIABLE += expr

Appends the string to the previous contents of the variable, separated by a space. If the variable was previously assigned with :=, then the right hand side is evaluated before appending.

Generating Prerequisites Automatically

The practice we recommend for automatic prerequisite generation is to have one makefile corresponding to each source file. For each source file name.c there is a makefile name.d which lists what files the object file name.o depends on. That way only the source files that have changed need to be rescanned to produce the new prerequisites.

Here is the pattern rule to generate a file of prerequisites (i.e., a makefile) called name.d from a C source file called name.c:

     %.d: %.c
            @set -e; rm -f $@; \
             $(CC) -M $(CPPFLAGS) $< > $@.$$$$; \
             sed 's,\($*\)\.o[ :]*,\1.o $@ : ,g' < $@.$$$$ > $@; \
             rm -f $@.$$$$

See Pattern Rules, for information on defining pattern rules. The `-e' flag to the shell causes it to exit immediately if the $(CC) command (or any other command) fails (exits with a nonzero status). With the GNU C compiler, you may wish to use the `-MM' flag instead of `-M'. This omits prerequisites on system header files. See Options Controlling the Preprocessor, for details.

The purpose of the sed command is to translate (for example):

     main.o : main.c defs.h

into:

     main.o main.d : main.c defs.h

This makes each `.d' file depend on all the source and header files that the corresponding `.o' file depends on. make then knows it must regenerate the prerequisites whenever any of the source or header files changes.

Once you've defined the rule to remake the `.d' files, you then use the include directive to read them all in. See Include. For example:

     sources = foo.c bar.c
   
    include $(sources:.c=.d)

(This example uses a substitution variable reference to translate the list of source files `foo.c bar.c' into a list of prerequisite makefiles, `foo.d bar.d'. See Substitution Refs, for full information on substitution references.) Since the `.d' files are makefiles like any others, make will remake them as necessary with no further work from you. See Remaking Makefiles.

Note that the `.d' files contain target definitions; you should be sure to place the include directive after the first, default goal in your makefiles or run the risk of having a random object file become the default goal. See How Make Works.

INCLUDE DIRECTIVE
The include directive tells make to suspend reading the current makefile and read one or more other makefiles before continuing. The directive is a line in the makefile that looks like this:

     include filenames...

filenames can contain shell file name patterns. If filenames is empty, nothing is included and no error is printed. Extra spaces are allowed and ignored at the beginning of the line, but a tab is not allowed. (If the line begins with a tab, it will be considered a command line.) Whitespace is required between include and the file names, and between file names; extra whitespace is ignored there and at the end of the directive. A comment starting with `#' is allowed at the end of the line. If the file names contain any variable or function references, they are expanded. See How to Use Variables.

For example, if you have three .mk files, a.mk, b.mk, and c.mk, and $(bar) expands to bish bash, then the following expression

     include foo *.mk $(bar)

is equivalent to

     include foo a.mk b.mk c.mk bish bash

When make processes an include directive, it suspends reading of the containing makefile and reads from each listed file in turn. When that is finished, make resumes reading the makefile in which the directive appears.

One occasion for using include directives is when several programs, handled by individual makefiles in various directories, need to use a common set of variable definitions (see Setting Variables) or pattern rules (see Defining and Redefining Pattern Rules).

Another such occasion is when you want to generate prerequisites from source files automatically; the prerequisites can be put in a file that is included by the main makefile. This practice is generally cleaner than that of somehow appending the prerequisites to the end of the main makefile as has been traditionally done with other versions of make. See Automatic Prerequisites. If the specified name does not start with a slash, and the file is not found in the current directory, several other directories are searched. First, any directories you have specified with the `-I' or `--include-dir' option are searched (see Summary of Options). Then the following directories (if they exist) are searched, in this order: prefix/include (normally /usr/local/include ¹) /usr/gnu/include, /usr/local/include, /usr/include.

If an included makefile cannot be found in any of these directories, a warning message is generated, but it is not an immediately fatal error; processing of the makefile containing the include continues. Once it has finished reading makefiles, make will try to remake any that are out of date or don't exist. See How Makefiles Are Remade. Only after it has tried to find a way to remake a makefile and failed, will make diagnose the missing makefile as a fatal error.

If you want make to simply ignore a makefile which does not exist and cannot be remade, with no error message, use the -include directive instead of include, like this:

     -include filenames...

HOW MAKE WORKS

How make Processes a Makefile

By default, make starts with the first target (not targets whose names start with `.'). This is called the default goal. (Goals are the targets that make strives ultimately to update. You can override this behavior using the command line (see Arguments to Specify the Goals) or with the .DEFAULT_GOAL special variable (see Other Special Variables). In the simple example of the previous section, the default goal is to update the executable program edit; therefore, we put that rule first.

Thus, when you give the command:

     make

make reads the makefile in the current directory and begins by processing the first rule. In the example, this rule is for relinking edit; but before make can fully process this rule, it must process the rules for the files that edit depends on, which in this case are the object files. Each of these files is processed according to its own rule. These rules say to update each `.o' file by compiling its source file. The recompilation must be done if the source file, or any of the header files named as prerequisites, is more recent than the object file, or if the object file does not exist.

The other rules are processed because their targets appear as prerequisites of the goal. If some other rule is not depended on by the goal (or anything it depends on, etc.), that rule is not processed, unless you tell make to do so (with a command such as make clean).

Before recompiling an object file, make considers updating its prerequisites, the source file and header files. This makefile does not specify anything to be done for them—the `.c' and `.h' files are not the targets of any rules—so make does nothing for these files. But make would update automatically generated C programs, such as those made by Bison or Yacc, by their own rules at this time.

After recompiling whichever object files need it, make decides whether to relink edit. This must be done if the file edit does not exist, or if any of the object files are newer than it. If an object file was just recompiled, it is now newer than edit, so edit is relinked. Thus, if we change the file insert.c and run make, make will compile that file to update insert.o, and then link edit. If we change the file command.h and run make, make will recompile the object files kbd.o, command.o and files.o and then link the file edit.

The DDD debugging tool

The DDD debugging tool is what I am looking for.
A front-end for the gdb!!!

How to examine the data:
We can use all the techniques in gdb by typing commands :)
Besides,

• The quickest way to examine variables is to move the pointer on an occurrence in the source text. The value is displayed in the source line; after a second, a popup window (called value tip) shows the variable value. This is useful for quick examination of several simple values.
• If you want to refer to variable values at a later time, you can print the value in the debugger console. This allows for displaying and examining larger data structures.
• If you want to examine complex data structures, you can display them graphically in the data window. Displays remain effective until you delete them; they are updated each time the program stops. This is useful for large dynamic structures.
• If you want to examine arrays of numeric values, you can plot them graphically in a separate plot window. The plot is updated each time the program stops. This is useful for large numeric arrays.
• Using GDB or DBX, you can also examine memory contents in any of several formats, independently of your program's data types.

shell programming

for:
for (( i = 0; i < 10; i++ )) #pay attention to the spaces!!!
do
echo ${i}
done

if:
a=3
if [ $a -lt 2 ] ; # the ;
then
echo $a;
fi


add:
a=3
b=4
c=$(( a + b )) #with $(( )), no $ is needed
echo $c

Some other possibilities to do addition: let key word!

let count=count+1

let "count+=1"

let "count++"